Social Class and Schizophrenia a Review of Early and Recent Findings in the United States

Learning Objectives

Past the end of this section, yous will exist able to:

• Sympathize the U.South. class structure
• Draw several types of social mobility
• Recognize characteristics that define and identify grade

Most sociologists define social form as a grouping based on similar social factors like wealth, income, educational activity, and occupation. These factors affect how much power and prestige a person has. Social stratification reflects an diff distribution of resource. In most cases, having more money means having more power or more opportunities. Stratification can likewise effect from concrete and intellectual traits. Categories that affect social continuing include family ancestry, race, ethnicity, age, and gender. In the United States, standing can also be defined by characteristics such equally IQ, able-bodied abilities, appearance, personal skills, and achievements.

Standard of Living

In the final century, the United States has seen a steady rise in its standard of living, the level of wealth available to a sure socioeconomic course in social club to acquire the textile necessities and comforts to maintain its lifestyle. The standard of living is based on factors such every bit income, employment, grade, poverty rates, and housing affordability. Because standard of living is closely related to quality of life, it can stand for factors such as the ability to beget a dwelling house, ain a car, and take vacations.

In the U.s., a small portion of the population has the means to the highest standard of living. A Federal Reserve Banking company study shows that a mere one per centum of the population holds i-third of our nation's wealth (Kennickell 2009). Wealthy people receive the nigh schooling, have better health, and consume the most goods and services. Wealthy people too wield decision-making ability. Many people think of the United States as a "middle-class guild." They think a few people are rich, a few are poor, and nigh are fairly well off, existing in the middle of the social strata. But equally the written report mentioned above indicates, at that place is not an even distribution of wealth. Millions of women and men struggle to pay rent, buy food, find work, and afford basic medical care. Women who are single heads of household tend to take a lower income and lower standard of living than their married or male person counterparts. This is a worldwide phenomenon known as the "feminization of poverty"—which acknowledges that women unduly make upward the majority of individuals in poverty beyond the earth.

In the United States, as in about high-income nations, social stratifications and standards of living are in part based on occupation (Lin and Xie 1988). Aside from the obvious impact that income has on someone's standard of living, occupations also influence social continuing through the relative levels of prestige they afford. Employment in medicine, law, or engineering confers high status. Teachers and police officers are generally respected, though not considered particularly prestigious. At the other end of the scale, some of the everyman rankings utilise to positions like waitress, janitor, and charabanc commuter.

The nearly significant threat to the relatively high standard of living nosotros're accustomed to in the United States is the turn down of the middle class. The size, income, and wealth of the middle class have all been declining since the 1970s. This is occurring at a time when corporate profits have increased more than 141 percent, and CEO pay has risen by more than 298 percent (Popken 2007).

K. William Domhoff, of the University of California at Santa Cruz, reports that "In 2010, the top 1% of households (the upper class) owned 35.four% of all privately held wealth, and the next 19% (the managerial, professional, and small business stratum) had 53.five%, which means that simply 20% of the people owned a remarkable 89%, leaving only 11% of the wealth for the lesser fourscore% (wage and salary workers)" (Domhoff 2013).

While several economical factors tin exist improved in the Usa (caitiff distribution of income and wealth, feminization of poverty, stagnant wages for well-nigh workers while executive pay and profits soar, declining middle grade), we are fortunate that the poverty experienced here is almost often relative poverty and not absolute poverty. Whereas accented poverty is deprivation so astringent that it puts survival in jeopardy, relative poverty is non having the means to alive the lifestyle of the average person in your country.

Every bit a wealthy developed country, the The states has the resources to provide the basic necessities to those in need through a series of federal and state social welfare programs. The best-known of these programs is likely the Supplemental Nutrition Aid Program (SNAP), which is administered by the United states Department of Agronomics. (This used to be known as the nutrient postage program.)

The programme began in the Slap-up Low, when unmarketable or surplus food was distributed to the hungry. It was not until 1961 that President John F. Kennedy initiated a nutrient stamp pilot program. His successor Lyndon B. Johnson was instrumental in the passage of the Food Stamp Human activity in 1964. In 1965, more than 500,000 individuals received food assistance. In March 2008, on the precipice of the Great Recession, participation hovered around 28 million people. During the recession, that number escalated to more than than forty 1000000 (USDA).

Social Classes in the The states

Does gustation or manner sense indicate form? Is there whatsoever way to tell if this young man comes from an upper-, middle-, or lower-course groundwork? (Photo courtesy of Kelly Bailey/flickr)

Does a person's appearance bespeak class? Tin y'all tell a man'due south education level based on his wearable? Do you know a woman's income by the car she drives?

For sociologists, categorizing class is a fluid science. Sociologists generally identify 3 levels of class in the United States: upper, center, and lower class. Within each class, in that location are many subcategories. Wealth is the nearly significant mode of distinguishing classes, because wealth can exist transferred to one's children and perpetuate the class structure. One economist, J.D. Foster, defines the xx percent of U.S. citizens' highest earners as "upper income," and the lower xx percent every bit "lower income." The remaining 60 percent of the population make up the heart form. Just by that distinction, annual household incomes for the centre class range between $25,000 and $100,000 (Mason and Sullivan 2010).

I sociological perspective distinguishes the classes, in part, co-ordinate to their relative ability and control over their lives. The upper course not just have power and control over their own lives simply also their social status gives them power and control over others' lives. The middle grade doesn't generally control other strata of society, only its members do exert control over their own lives. In contrast, the lower course has petty command over their piece of work or lives. Below, we will explore the major divisions of U.Due south. social class and their key subcategories.

Upper Form

Members of the upper form tin afford to live, work, and play in sectional places designed for luxury and condolement. (Photo courtesy of PrimeImageMedia.com/flickr)

The upper class is considered the elevation, and only the powerful aristocracy become to see the view from at that place. In the United States, people with extreme wealth make upwards 1 pct of the population, and they own one-tertiary of the country'southward wealth (Beeghley 2008).

Money provides non just admission to textile goods, simply likewise access to a lot of power. Equally corporate leaders, members of the upper class brand decisions that bear upon the job condition of millions of people. As media owners, they influence the collective identity of the nation. They run the major network television stations, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, and sports franchises. Every bit board members of the near influential colleges and universities, they influence cultural attitudes and values. As philanthropists, they establish foundations to support social causes they believe in. As campaign contributors, they sway politicians and fund campaigns, sometimes to protect their ain economic interests.

U.Due south. club has historically distinguished between "old money" (inherited wealth passed from 1 generation to the adjacent) and "new money" (wealth you have earned and congenital yourself). While both types may have equal net worth, they have traditionally held unlike social standings. People of former money, firmly situated in the upper class for generations, accept held high prestige. Their families have socialized them to know the customs, norms, and expectations that come with wealth. Ofttimes, the very wealthy don't work for wages. Some study concern or become lawyers in social club to manage the family fortune. Others, such as Paris Hilton and Kim Kardashian, capitalize on being a rich socialite and transform that into celebrity status, flaunting a wealthy lifestyle.

Even so, new-money members of the upper form are not oriented to the customs and mores of the aristocracy. They haven't gone to the well-nigh exclusive schools. They accept not established erstwhile-coin social ties. People with new coin might flaunt their wealth, buying sports cars and mansions, only they might still exhibit behaviors attributed to the middle and lower classes.

The Centre Course

These members of a gild likely consider themselves middle class. (Photo courtesy of United Fashion Canada-Centraide Canada/flickr)

Many people consider themselves middle course, merely there are differing ideas nearly what that means. People with almanac incomes of $150,000 call themselves middle grade, as practise people who annually earn $30,000. That helps explain why, in the U.s.a., the centre class is broken into upper and lower subcategories.

Upper-middle-form people tend to agree bachelor's and postgraduate degrees. They've studied subjects such every bit business, management, law, or medicine. Lower-eye-grade members hold available's degrees from iv-year colleges or associate's degrees from 2-year customs or technical colleges.

Condolement is a key concept to the centre class. Middle-class people work hard and live fairly comfortable lives. Upper-middle-course people tend to pursue careers that earn comfortable incomes. They provide their families with large homes and dainty cars. They may go skiing or canoeing on vacation. Their children receive high-quality education and healthcare (Gilbert 2010).

In the lower middle form, people hold jobs supervised past members of the upper center class. They fill technical, lower-level management or administrative support positions. Compared to lower-class work, lower-centre-grade jobs carry more prestige and come up with slightly higher paychecks. With these incomes, people tin afford a decent, mainstream lifestyle, just they struggle to maintain it. They mostly don't have plenty income to build significant savings. In addition, their grip on class status is more precarious than in the upper tiers of the class arrangement. When budgets are tight, lower-middle-form people are frequently the ones to lose their jobs.

The Lower Course

This man is a custodian at a eatery. His task, which is crucial to the concern, is considered lower grade. (Photo courtesy of Frederick Md Publicity/flickr)

The lower class is also referred to equally the working grade. Just like the heart and upper classes, the lower class can be divided into subsets: the working course, the working poor, and the underclass. Compared to the lower middle grade, lower-class people have less of an educational background and earn smaller incomes. They work jobs that require niggling prior skill or experience and often do routine tasks under shut supervision.

Working-class people, the highest subcategory of the lower course, often land decent jobs in fields like custodial or food service. The work is easily-on and often physically demanding, such equally landscaping, cooking, cleaning, or building.

Below the working class is the working poor. Like the working course, they have unskilled, low-paying employment. However, their jobs rarely offer benefits such as healthcare or retirement planning, and their positions are often seasonal or temporary. They work as sharecroppers, migrant farm workers, housecleaners, and twenty-four hours laborers. Some are high school dropouts. Some are illiterate, unable to read job ads.

How can people work full-time and still be poor? Even working full-time, millions of the working poor earn incomes besides meager to support a family unit. Minimum wage varies from land to state, but in many states information technology is approaching $eight.00 per hour (Department of Labor 2014). At that charge per unit, working forty hours a calendar week earns $320. That comes to $16,640 a year, before tax and deductions. Fifty-fifty for a unmarried person, the pay is low. A married couple with children will have a difficult fourth dimension covering expenses.

The underclass is the U.s.a.' everyman tier. Members of the underclass live mainly in inner cities. Many are unemployed or underemployed. Those who do concur jobs typically perform menial tasks for piddling pay. Some of the underclass are homeless. For many, welfare systems provide a much-needed support through food assistance, medical intendance, housing, and the like.

Social Mobility

Social mobility refers to the power to modify positions inside a social stratification system. When people improve or diminish their economic status in a way that affects social grade, they experience social mobility.

Individuals tin can experience up or downward social mobility for a diversity of reasons. Upward mobility refers to an increase—or upward shift—in social class. In the United States, people applaud the rags-to-riches achievements of celebrities like Jennifer Lopez or Michael Jordan. Bestselling writer Stephen Male monarch worked as a janitor prior to being published. Oprah Winfrey grew upwardly in poverty in rural Mississippi before becoming a powerful media personality. In that location are many stories of people rising from modest beginnings to fame and fortune. Merely the truth is that relative to the overall population, the number of people who rising from poverty to wealth is very small. Still, up mobility is not only about becoming rich and famous. In the Usa, people who earn a college caste, get a chore promotion, or marry someone with a good income may move up socially. In contrast, downwardly mobility indicates a lowering of one's social class. Some people motility downward because of business concern setbacks, unemployment, or illness. Dropping out of schoolhouse, losing a chore, or getting a divorce may issue in a loss of income or condition and, therefore, downward social mobility.

It is non uncommon for different generations of a family to vest to varying social classes. This is known as intergenerational mobility. For instance, an upper-class executive may have parents who belonged to the heart form. In turn, those parents may have been raised in the lower class. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect long-term societal changes.

Similarly, intragenerational mobility describes a difference in social form that between different members of the same generation. For case, the wealth and prestige experienced by one person may be quite dissimilar from that of his or her siblings.

Structural mobility happens when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the social class ladder. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in gild as a whole, not individual changes. In the beginning one-half of the twentieth century, industrialization expanded the U.S. economic system, raising the standard of living and leading to upward structural mobility. In today'southward work economy, the recent recession and the outsourcing of jobs overseas take contributed to high unemployment rates. Many people have experienced economic setbacks, creating a wave of downward structural mobility.

When analyzing the trends and movements in social mobility, sociologists consider all modes of mobility. Scholars recognize that mobility is not as common or easy to achieve as many people recollect. In fact, some consider social mobility a myth.

Grade Traits

Class traits, too called class markers, are the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class. Class traits point the level of exposure a person has to a wide range of cultures. Class traits also indicate the amount of resources a person has to spend on items similar hobbies, vacations, and leisure activities.

People may associate the upper class with enjoyment of costly, refined, or highly cultivated tastes—expensive clothing, luxury cars, high-finish fund-raisers, and opulent vacations. People may too believe that the middle and lower classes are more likely to enjoy camping ground, fishing, or hunting, shopping at large retailers, and participating in community activities. While these descriptions may identify grade traits, they may besides just be stereotypes. Moreover, just equally class distinctions have blurred in recent decades, then also accept form traits. A very wealthy person may enjoy bowling equally much as opera. A manufacturing plant worker could be a skilled French cook. A billionaire might wearing apparel in ripped jeans, and a low-income student might own designer shoes.

Plough-of-the-Century "Social Trouble Novels": Sociological Gold Mines

Class distinctions were sharper in the nineteenth century and earlier, in office considering people easily accepted them. The ideology of social order made class construction seem natural, right, and just.

In the belatedly nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, U.S. and British novelists played a part in changing public perception. They published novels in which characters struggled to survive against a merciless form system. These dissenting authors used gender and morality to question the class arrangement and expose its inequalities. They protested the suffering of urbanization and industrialization, drawing attention to these issues.

These "social trouble novels," sometimes called Victorian realism, forced middle-class readers into an uncomfortable position: they had to question and challenge the natural order of social course.

For speaking out so strongly about the social issues of course, authors were both praised and criticized. Nearly authors did not want to deliquesce the class organisation. They wanted to bring about an awareness that would meliorate atmospheric condition for the lower classes, while maintaining their own higher class positions (DeVine 2005).

Soon, middle-form readers were not their just audition. In 1870, Forster's Uncomplicated Education Human action required all children ages five through twelve in England and Wales to nourish school. The act increased literacy levels among the urban poor, causing a rise in sales of cheap newspapers and magazines. The increasing number of people who rode public transit systems created a demand for "railway literature," equally it was called (Williams 1984). These reading materials are credited with the motility toward democratization in England. Past 1900 the British middle grade had established a rigid definition for itself, and England'southward working class as well began to cocky-identify and demand a ameliorate way of life.

Many of the novels of that era are seen as sociological goldmines. They are studied equally existing sources because they item the community and mores of the upper, middle, and lower classes of that period in history.

Examples of "social problem" novels include Charles Dickens'south The Adventures of Oliver Twist (1838), which shocked readers with its brutal portrayal of the realities of poverty, vice, and crime. Thomas Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891) was considered revolutionary by critics for its depiction of working-class women (DeVine 2005), and U.Due south. novelist Theodore Dreiser's Sis Carrie (1900) portrayed an accurate and detailed description of early on Chicago.

Summary

At that place are three main classes in the United states: upper, middle, and lower class. Social mobility describes a shift from one social class to another. Course traits, likewise called class markers, are the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class.

Short Reply

1. Which social class practise you and your family unit belong to? Are you in a unlike social class than your grandparents and great-grandparents? Does your grade differ from your social continuing, and, if so, how? What aspects of your societal situation institute you in a social class?
2. What class traits ascertain your peer group? For case, what spoken communication patterns or wear trends practise you lot and your friends share? What cultural elements, such every bit taste in music or hobbies, define your peer grouping? How do you lot see this fix of course traits as unlike from other classes either above or below yours?
3. Write a list of ten to twenty class traits that describe the environs of your upbringing. Which of these seem like true class traits, and which seem like stereotypes? What items might fall into both categories? How do you imagine a sociologist might address the conflation of grade traits and stereotypes?

Glossary

class traits

the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called course markers)

downward mobility

a lowering of one's social class

intergenerational mobility

a difference in social form between different generations of a family

intragenerational mobility

a departure in social course betwixt unlike members of the same generation

social mobility

the ability to modify positions within a social stratification organization

standard of living

the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle

structural mobility

a societal alter that enables a whole group of people to move up or downwards the class ladder

upward mobility

an increment—or up shift—in social class

Farther Research

PBS made a documentary most social class called "People Similar Us: Social Class in America." The filmmakers interviewed people who lived in Park Avenue penthouses and Appalachian trailer parks. The accompanying web site is full of information, interactive games, and life stories from those who participated. Read about information technology at http://openstaxcollege.org/l/social_class_in_America

References

Beeghley, Leonard. 2008. The Construction of Social Stratification in the U.s.. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

DeVine, Christine. 2005. Form in Plough-of-the-Century Novels of Gissing, James, Hardy and Wells. London: Ashgate Publishing Co.

Domhoff, Yard. William. 2013. "Wealth, Income, and Power." Retrieved Dec 22, 2014 (http://www2.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html).

Gilbert, Dennis. 2010. The American Class Structure in an Historic period of Growing Inequality. Newbury Park, CA: Pine Forge Press.

Kennickell, Arthur B. 2009. Ponds and Streams: Wealth and Income in the U.S., 1989 to 2007. January 7. Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2009/200913/200913pap.pdf).

Lin, Nan, and Wen Xie. 1988. "Occupational Prestige in Urban China." American Journal of Sociology 93(4):793–832.

Bricklayer, Jeff, and Andy Sullivan. 2010. "Factbox: What Is Middle Course in the United States?" Reuters, September 14. Retrieved Baronial 29, 2011 (http://world wide web.reuters.com/commodity/2010/09/14/usa-u.s.-taxes-middleclass-idUSTRE68D3QD20100914).

Popken, Ben. "CEO Pay Upward 298%, Average Worker's? 4.3% (1995-2005)," 2007, The Consumerist. Retrieved on December 31, 2014 (http://consumerist.com/2007/04/09/ceo-pay-up-298-average-workers-43-1995-2005/)

Us Department of Labor. 2014. "Wage and Hour Sectionalisation: Minimum Wage Laws in the States—September ane, 2014." Retrieved January 10, 2012 (http://www.dol.gov/whd/minwage/america.htm).

United states of america Department of Agriculture, 2013, "Food and Nutrition Assistance Research Database: Overview." Retrieved December 31, 2014 (http://world wide web.ers.usda.gov/data-products/nutrient-and-nutrition-aid-research-database/ridge-project-summaries.aspx?type=2&summaryId=233)

Williams, Raymond. 1984 [1976]. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Printing.

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